Development from Conception to 16 Years

Development from conception to 16 years New-born babies are born with many different reflexes. ‘The presence of some of the new-borns primitive reflexes is essential to survival’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 12. Some of the automatic reflexes include ‘swallowing and sucking, when anything is put in the mouth, babies at once suck and swallow’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 12.At birth in their gross motor development babies will lie on their back ‘lie supine (on their backs), with the head to one side’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 8. In their fine motor development babies will hold their hands closed, ‘Usually hold their hands tightly closed, but the hands may open spontaneously during feeding or when the back of the hand is stroked’ and tuck their thumbs under their fingers, ‘often hold their thumbs tucked in under their fingers’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, P age 8.Babies’ communication and language development, they need to share language experiences and talk to others, ‘need to share language experiences and co-operate with others’, also make eye contact and cry when they need help, ‘make eye contact and cry to indicate need’, babies also move their limbs when they hear high pitched tones, ‘respond to high-pitched tones by moving their limbs’, babies may also move their eyes towards the sound, ‘may move their eyes towards the direction of sound’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 15.At three months babies gross motor development, may be able to keep their head in a central position when lying on their back, ‘keep their head in a central position when lying supine’ and have almost no head lag when moving into the sitting position, ‘have almost no head lag in moving into the sitting position’, Child Development An illustrated Guide, Page 28.In their fine motor development, three month old babies may be able to watch their hands and play with their fingers, ‘Move their hands and play with their fingers’. Also may be able to hold onto a rattle for a short amount of time, ‘can hold a rattle for a brief time before dropping it’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 29. With three month old babies, communication and language development, they may take a lot more interest in their surroundings, ‘take an increasing interest in their surroundings’.Also show more interest in playthings, ‘Show an increasing interest in playthings’. At six months, babies in their gross motor development, may be able to use their shoulders to pull themselves into the sitting position ‘can use their shoulders to pull themselves into a sitting position’, also they may be able to bear their own weight, ‘can bear almost all their own weight’, Child Development An Illus trated Guide, Page 36.With six month olds fine motor development they may be able to reach out and grab a small toy when its offered, ‘reach and grab when a small toy is offered’, also explore objects by putting them in their mouth, ‘explore objects by putting them in their mouth’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 37. With communication and language development at six months, they may be able to babble spontaneously, ‘babble spontaneously, first using monosyllables, such as ‘ga-ga’, and then double syllables, such as goo-ga’, and later combining more syllables’.Also talk to themselves in a tuneful song voice, ‘talk to themselves in a tuneful, sing-song voice’ Child Development An illustrated Guide, Page 39. At nine months, babies in their gross motor development, may be able to maintain a sitting position independently for up to 15 minutes ‘can maintain a sitting position with a straight backâ €™ and ‘can sit unsupported for up to 15 minutes’, they may also be able to find ways of moving around the floor ‘may find ways of moving about the floor – for example, by rolling, wriggling, or crawling on their stomach’, Child Development An illustrated Guide, Page 44.With six month old fine motor development they may be able to grasp objects between fingers and thumb in a pincer grasp ‘can grasp objects between finger and thumb in a pincer grasp’ also can pass toys from one hand to the other ‘manipulate toys by passing them from one hand to the other’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 45.With their communication and language they may be able to imitate adult sounds ‘imitate adult sounds, like a cough or a ‘brr’ noise’ also can understand the word ‘no’ ‘understand and obey the command ‘no’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 46. At twelve mon ths, babies in their gross motor development may be able to rise in a sitting position from lying down ‘can rise in a sitting position from lying down’ also they may be able to cruise along using furniture as a support ‘can cruise along using furniture as a support’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 50.Where twelve month old babies fine motor development is concerned they may be able to hold a crayon in a palmer grasp and turn several pages of a book ‘can hold a crayon in a palmer grasp and turn several pages of a book at once’ also can build a few bricks and arrange toys on the floor ‘build with a few bricks and arrange the toys on the floor’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 51.With their communication and language 12 month olds may be able to speak two to six or more recognisable words ‘speak to or more recognisable words and show that they understand many more – babbling has developed into muc h more speech – like form, with increased intonation’ also may be able to hand objects to adults when asked and use them in an appropriate way ‘hand objects to adults when asked and begin to treat objects in an appropriate way, for example, cuddle a teddy but use a hairbrush’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 52.At eighteen months children with their gross motor development may be able to walk steadily and stop safely ‘can walk steadily and stop safely, without sitting down suddenly’ also they may be able to climb onto an adult chair and sit down ‘can climb forward into an adult chair and then turn around and sit’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 58.With their fine motor development eighteen month olds may be able to point to known objects ‘can point to known objects’ also they may hold a pencil in their whole hand or between the thumb and first to fingers, called the primitive tripod grasp â₠¬Ëœcan hold a pencil in their whole hand or between the thumb and first two fingers (this is called the primitive tripod grasp) Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 59.Where their communication and language is they may use gestures alongside words ‘use gestures alongside words’ also obey simple instructions and answer questions ‘obey simple instructions such as ‘shut the door’ and respond to simple questions such as ‘where’s the pussy-cat? ’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 60.At two years children with their gross motor development may be able to run safely avoiding obstacles ‘Can run safely, avoiding obstacles and are very mobile’, also walk up and down stairs usually putting both feet on each step ‘walk up and down stairs, usually putting both feet on each step’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 66.With their fine motor development two year olds may draw circles, lines and dots using preferred hand ‘draw circles, lines and dots using their preferred hand’ also may drink from a cup and manage to scoop with a spoon at mealtimes ‘can drink from a cup with fewer spills, and manage scooping with a spoon at mealtimes’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 67.With their communication and language they may talk to themselves often ‘talk to themselves often, but may not always be understood by others’ and may use phrases as telegraphic speech for example ‘daddy-car’, might mean a number of different things, ‘use phrases as telegraphic speech (or telegraphese) – for example, ‘daddy-car’ might mean a number of different things, including ‘daddy in his car’, ‘I want to go in daddy’s car’ or ‘daddy’s car is outside’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 68.At two and a half years children with their gross motor developm ent can stand on tiptoe when shown ‘stand on tiptoe when shown’, also jump with both feet together from a low step ‘jump with both feet together from a low step’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 66. With their fine motor development they may be able to eat skilfully with a spoon and maybe a fork ‘eat skilfully with a spoon and may use a fork’, also may build a tower of seven or more cubes using preferred hand, ‘can build a tower of seven or more cubes, using their preferred hand’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 67.Where two and a half year olds communication and language is concerned they may be able to know their full name ‘know their full name’, also continually ask questions ‘continually ask questions beginning ‘what†¦? ’ or ‘who†¦.? ’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 69. When children are three years, with their gross motor developmen t they may be able to walk backwards and sideways ‘can walk backwards and sideways’ also may ride a tricycle using pedals ‘can ride a tricycle using pedals’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 76.With their fine motor development they may be able to control a pencil using their thumb and the first two fingers (dynamic tripod grasp) ‘can control a pencil using their thumb and the first two fingers (the dynamic tripod grasp), also may copy a building pattern ‘can copy a building pattern of three or more cubes, including a bridge’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 77.Communication and language, they may be able to learn to speak more than one language ‘learn to speak more than one language if they hear more than one language spoken around them as they grow’, also carry on simple conversations ‘carry on simple conversations, often missing link words such as ‘the’ and ‘is’, Chi ld Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 79.At four years of age children in their gross motor development may be able to walk along a line with good balance ‘have developed a good sense of balance and may be able to walk along a line’ also they may be able to run up and down stairs, one foot per step ‘run up and down stairs, one foot per step’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 86.With their fine motor development four year olds may be able to thread small beads on a lace ‘are able to thread small beads on a lace’, also may draw a figure that resembles a person ‘can draw on request a figure that resembles a person, showing head, legs and body’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 87. With their communication and language they may be able to repeat rhymes and songs with few mistakes ‘can repeat nursery rhymes and songs, with very few errors’.Also may state their full name and address ‘can sta te their full name and address almost correctly’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 89. At five years children in their gross motor development may be able to use a variety of play equipment ‘use a variety of play equipment, including slides, swings and climbing frames’ also may have good coordination playing ball games and dancing ‘show good co-ordination, playing ball games and dancing rhythmically to music’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 94.In their fine motor they may be able to use a knife and fork competently ‘can use a knife and fork competently, but may still need to have meat cut up for them’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 94. With four year olds, communication and language they may be able to talk about the past, present and future ‘talk about the past, present and future, with good sense of time’. Also enjoy jokes and riddles ‘enjoy jokes and riddles’, Child Dev elopment An Illustrated Guide, Page 96.At six years of age, in their gross motor development, children are gaining both strength and agility, they may be able to jump off apparatus with confidence ‘are gaining in both strength and agility; they can jump off apparatus at school with confidence’ also may be able to ride a two-wheeled bike, maybe without stabilisers ‘can ride a two-wheeled bike, possibly without stabilisers’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 102.With their fine motor development they may be able to write their first and last name ‘can write their last name as well as their first name’, also may write simple stories ‘may begin to write simple stories’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 103. Six year olds, in their communication and language, may be able to talk fluently with confidence ‘talk fluently and with confidence’, also are developing literacy skills ‘are steadily develo ping literacy skills (reading and writing), although the ability to read independently with confidence usually begins between 7 and 9 years of age’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 105.At seven years, in their gross motor development, children may be able to control their speed when running and avoid obstacles ‘are able to control their speed when running and can swerve to avoid collision’, also are skilful in catching and throwing a ball, using one hand only ‘are skilful in catching and throwing a ball, using one hand only’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 110.With their fine motor development they may be able to use a large needle to sew and thread ‘can use a large needle to sew and thread’, may also use colour in a naturalistic way ‘begin to use colour in a naturalistic way, for example using a band of green colour at the bottom of the page to represent grass and a band of blue across the top to represe nt sky’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 111.They may be able to, in the communication and language, understand book language ‘begin to understand book language and that stories have characters and a plot (the narrative)’, and may express and communicate their thoughts ‘like to express and communicate their thoughts – about a book they have read or a TV programme they have seen’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 112. Two theoretical perspectives relevant to physical development and language and communication development are Noam Chomsky, he was American professor of linguistics, and he developed a theory, based on the idea of language development as an innate process.He believed that humans are born with the knowledge already for language; he suggested that babies have a language acquisition device (LAD). He considered that this LAD enables children to absorb the language they hear and break it up, then work out what i t is and develop an understanding of its rules and grammatical structure. To support Chomskys theory it has been shown that children of all cultures develop language at more a less the same time. Another is Arnold Gessel (1880- 1961), he was an American paediatrician; he identified three principles of physical development.The first he stated was that ‘Development follows a definite sequence’, this means that when children are growing and progressing there is a pattern in that they need to do certain movements e. g. walk, in order to do other more challenging ones e. g. skipping. The second was that ‘Development begins with the control of head movements and proceeds downwards’, this is because babies need to be able to move their head around in order to search for food, they gain control of their head and top of the spine before other parts of their body, this is thought to be a survival mechanism.The third principle is ‘Development begins with uncontr olled gross motor movements before becoming precise and refined’, this simply means that when babies are first born they have no control over their legs and arms but control is quickly gained, first of the arms and then of the wrists. I have attached three observations as appendices; these are on a child aged 3 years 1 month. I have observed my target child’s physical development, whilst looking at her gross motor skills, I used a checklist observation. For her fine motor skills I used, written narrative and for her balance and coordination I used a photographic observation.A checklist observation is when you draw a table with the columns, ‘developmental milestones’, this is where you write the milestones from the EYFS or a book and look for their age group and write what they should be able to achieve. You may have milestones for different ages for example six months before and six months after the child’s actual age. In the next column tick Ã¢â‚¬Ë œyes’, if they did completed the milestone, if not tick ‘no’ in the column after. Then the last column says ‘comments’ which is where you put additional information about how or where the child completed or didn’t complete the milestones and if she needed assistance.The photographic observation is when you look through the EYFS at your TCs age group for the chosen subject, for e. g. ‘physical development’ and see what they should be doing, then when you see your TC doing these things while observing, take a series pictures of them in a sequence so it tells a story, then write next to the picture a little caption about what the child is doing and how/ where she is doing it. A written narrative is an observation where you write down exactly what you see, including what hand the child is using, the expressions on their face etc. it’s a running commentary of what is happening.The observer sits away from the child and does not g et involved during the observation and makes notes. The observer should write the observation up ASAP whilst they still remember the information. First of all we must ask permission from the parent before we do any type of observation, if we did not do this then the practioner and the parents trust is jeopardised immediately. This is part of the settings policies and procedures which provides consistent practise, trust and high standards and if they are not followed it could lead to different standards bad reputation and inconsistent practise.It is against the law to give out children’s details to anyone, if the child is not in danger; this is stated in the legislation, The Data Protection Act 1998, ‘To protect individuals rights from breaching of information’ all of the nursery settings are aware and follow this, if they didn’t follow this then children will be put in harm and may be taken advantage of, it will not only put the child in harm but also the child’s family as well.We can maintain confidentiality throughout the observation by using TC meaning target child in all the observations rather than their name, this will help keep the child safe as it will not give any personal information away, we can also use TA meaning target adult and OC meaning other children, this will help keep the staff and other children from risk.Also we can make sure we do not give away the settings name and just write, for example, ‘day nursery’ and all the observations are objective, meaning that you are not assuming anything e. g. how the child is feeling, this is needed so you are not labelling children, jumping to conclusions or being bias. Different observation techniques are used as it improves accuracy, e. g. you wouldn’t use a photographic to look at the language development.In photographic observations you must make sure that you take the images on the settings camera not your own and print them off in the setting n ot take them on a memory stick, if you print off more photographs than needed you must destroy them using a shredder, also when taking the images make sure you do not get any other children in the background as they may not have the permission from the parents to do so, if we did not do this then the parent would then not feel comfortable in leaving their child in that setting, also the images may get into the wrong hands and be used inappropriately meaning the child could be at risk.The only type of information that should be shared is safety: medical issues, allergies, Support learning: likes, dislikes, what stage they're up to, and Background info: if anything is happening at home that could affect child: e. g. separation or family death, information is only shared on a need to know basis. All the information should be kept in a locked filing cabinet. Also make sure that the observations are only shared with the parents of the hild and other professionals. With my three observati ons on my target child I looked at three different developmental areas, such as, gross motor, fine motor and balance and co-ordination. In the gross motor observation using quotes from the ‘EYFS’ and ‘Child Development An Illustrated Guide’, my TC is currently achieving the majority of these milestones and some of the things stated she couldn’t of accomplished in the garden, e. g. ‘using a pencil’.My TC seems to be very confident in peddling, jumping, balancing etc and kicking a ball with great control; however, she needed assistance with walking on tiptoes, this is due to possibly not having the opportunity to try it. My TC also seems very sociable as she was playing a lot with her friends whether it was by pushing them round in the car or throwing a ball to them, this is perhaps because she is with adult company a lot of the time, this checklist information therefore shows me that there are no areas to be concerned about and my TC prac tises these skills every day.When observing her balance and co-ordination, I have realised that she is very confident and in control of her balance and co-ordination, also that she is developing at the right stage for her age and is capable balancing by herself without assistance, showing that she is becoming more independent. My TC persisted with the activities even when challenges occurred which shows she is persistent and also she was finding new ways to do things which shows she is very inquisitive, this is stated in the ‘EYFS, Characteristics of effective learning’, showing she is on track and at the right place.With the fine motor observation, my TC is meeting and exceeding the developmental milestones that she should be applying with the EYFS, this observation shows me that she engages in an activity and doesn’t give up until she has accomplished it, this shows great determination. My TC is turning out to be very independent, clever and determined, all of these things show that she is developing at the right pace for her age and is currently meeting and exceeding the developmental milestones.This is possibly due to spending a lot of one to one time with mum and dad and being at nursery all day for three days; she always joins in with games and includes her friends improving vital skills such a socialising and physical development. My TC is always using her initiative when things go wrong and quickly amends them, e. g. when ‘she dropped all the beads, she quickly picked them up and rebuilt it’. My TCs needs are that she needs the equipment, space and time to develop these skills, improving her developmental areas.She needs extra help with balancing; walking on tiptoes etc. so in the short term setting out obstacle courses or beams to walk along would benefit her massively as it would require her to use her balance and concentration. ‘Blocks and block play is very important for childrens learning and development. Bec ause there is no right or wrong way to play with them, they are the perfect open-ended resource and they are so versatile that they support learning across all areas of the curriculam’.Through my observations and discussions with my mentor, I am aware that my TC really enjoys playing outside and with her friends, and she feels lost without them; this is mainly because she spends a lot of time outside with her parents, one to one, this is massively beneficial also for her health. To support her future planning I would provide more activities that includes being outside and being active and try giving her the one on one attention, when possible.The implications of observations are that observations need to be valid and reliable otherwise there will be biasness and different interpretations of how the child is feeling and the observations won’t be accurate. We can do this by objective observations, which are by looking at the child with fresh eyes, meaning we don’t jump to conclusions and make judgements and we so not have stereotypical views of the child. We can also make it reliable by writing it up ASAP so the observation is still in your head and you don’t forget or make-up key information.We must use different techniques to observe the child this is because there are many aspects to look at and you can’t look at them all from one type, e. g. looking at a child’s language, you couldn’t do this using a photographic observation, if you didn’t do this then you would miss out information that might be necessary to detect any issues. Observations are needed to reflect on for future planning, if you didn’t the child will lose interest and not progress in development.Observations are also good to give to the parent as they can see how their child is getting on and gives them reassurance as to how their child is progressing, it will hopefully highlight if there are any problems as well, which they can pas s onto other professionals. If you did not do all of these things it will let your reputation down and show you cannot be reliable to look after children in a professional manner. John Bowlby (1907-1990), stated that a Child’s emotional bond to their familiar caregiver i. e. a family member or riend is a biological response that ensured survival, he called this the ‘theory of attachment’, and he said that the quality of attachment is to blame for the child’s capacity to form trusting relationships. His theory stated that children show a preference for closeness to a small number of adults and these attachments are a normal part of human development. When babies are born they are adapted to seek out attachments not just for the aim of being fed and protected but for the feelings of safety the attachment brings.Also he said that when an infant feels safe and secure they won’t be as attached to you as when they feel scared or anxious, this is known as ‘attachment behaviour’. Also as infants mature into adulthood, the need for attachment lessens, however when we feel stress or anxiety we may find ourselves seeking comfort from loved ones. The main positive outcomes of good attachment experiences in the early years seemed to be social ones, things such as self-confidence, efficiency, self-esteem and the capacity to care for others and to be cared for.Many practioners worry about the children becoming too attached to them and fear that it may undermine relationships at home. They don’t want to give children the feeling of loss when they have to leave them and move on to school or the next stage. However, children can cope with several close attachments, so now at most nurseries children are given a key person, but practioners must maintain professional boundaries too, favouritism is not an outcome of closeness to a child so practioners must work alongside the parent. Burrhus Skinner (1904-1990), was probably one of the best known behaviourist theorists.Skinner applied ideas taken from his work with rodents to children, this approach is called operant conditioning, and he wrote most of his books about people. To him both animals and people are organisms – differing only to the degree of learning. Behaviourism is sometimes known as the learning theory, learning and development are often seen in terms of nature verses nurture. Behaviourism is at the extreme nurture end, Behaviourists generally believe that all behaviour is learned and can be shaped. The most common view is that behaviour is shaped by punishment and rewards, and that humans act to avoid punishment and to gain reward.Skinner emphasised reward. He believed that punishment was counter-productive, having the opposite of the desired effect. He broke tasks down into small steps, and with each step reinforced and rewarded as it was learned. Although skinners experiments were generally carried out on animals, his work became wid ely applied to child development and to work with parents. Skinner proposed that a child’s language is shaped by the responses given to them by carers or parents. Skinners theory would indicate that children have to go through a trial and error aspect; however children can pick up things that are not learnt through regular reinforcement.His work was put into practise by teaching methods which focus on the repletion of words and completion of rows of sums. Behaviourism is most often seen in the teaching of special needs children and behavioural management. Breaking down tasks into small steps, such as star charts, stamps, stickers, rewarding children for keeping to instructions and rules, and taking away of their luxury’s when they don’t keep to rules, praise and encouragement. This was introduced in the 1950s known as ‘programmed instruction’. Development from Conception to 16 Years Development from conception to 16 years New-born babies are born with many different reflexes. ‘The presence of some of the new-borns primitive reflexes is essential to survival’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 12. Some of the automatic reflexes include ‘swallowing and sucking, when anything is put in the mouth, babies at once suck and swallow’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 12.At birth in their gross motor development babies will lie on their back ‘lie supine (on their backs), with the head to one side’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 8. In their fine motor development babies will hold their hands closed, ‘Usually hold their hands tightly closed, but the hands may open spontaneously during feeding or when the back of the hand is stroked’ and tuck their thumbs under their fingers, ‘often hold their thumbs tucked in under their fingers’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, P age 8.Babies’ communication and language development, they need to share language experiences and talk to others, ‘need to share language experiences and co-operate with others’, also make eye contact and cry when they need help, ‘make eye contact and cry to indicate need’, babies also move their limbs when they hear high pitched tones, ‘respond to high-pitched tones by moving their limbs’, babies may also move their eyes towards the sound, ‘may move their eyes towards the direction of sound’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 15.At three months babies gross motor development, may be able to keep their head in a central position when lying on their back, ‘keep their head in a central position when lying supine’ and have almost no head lag when moving into the sitting position, ‘have almost no head lag in moving into the sitting position’, Child Development An illustrated Guide, Page 28.In their fine motor development, three month old babies may be able to watch their hands and play with their fingers, ‘Move their hands and play with their fingers’. Also may be able to hold onto a rattle for a short amount of time, ‘can hold a rattle for a brief time before dropping it’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 29. With three month old babies, communication and language development, they may take a lot more interest in their surroundings, ‘take an increasing interest in their surroundings’.Also show more interest in playthings, ‘Show an increasing interest in playthings’. At six months, babies in their gross motor development, may be able to use their shoulders to pull themselves into the sitting position ‘can use their shoulders to pull themselves into a sitting position’, also they may be able to bear their own weight, ‘can bear almost all their own weight’, Child Development An Illus trated Guide, Page 36.With six month olds fine motor development they may be able to reach out and grab a small toy when its offered, ‘reach and grab when a small toy is offered’, also explore objects by putting them in their mouth, ‘explore objects by putting them in their mouth’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 37. With communication and language development at six months, they may be able to babble spontaneously, ‘babble spontaneously, first using monosyllables, such as ‘ga-ga’, and then double syllables, such as goo-ga’, and later combining more syllables’.Also talk to themselves in a tuneful song voice, ‘talk to themselves in a tuneful, sing-song voice’ Child Development An illustrated Guide, Page 39. At nine months, babies in their gross motor development, may be able to maintain a sitting position independently for up to 15 minutes ‘can maintain a sitting position with a straight backâ €™ and ‘can sit unsupported for up to 15 minutes’, they may also be able to find ways of moving around the floor ‘may find ways of moving about the floor – for example, by rolling, wriggling, or crawling on their stomach’, Child Development An illustrated Guide, Page 44.With six month old fine motor development they may be able to grasp objects between fingers and thumb in a pincer grasp ‘can grasp objects between finger and thumb in a pincer grasp’ also can pass toys from one hand to the other ‘manipulate toys by passing them from one hand to the other’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 45.With their communication and language they may be able to imitate adult sounds ‘imitate adult sounds, like a cough or a ‘brr’ noise’ also can understand the word ‘no’ ‘understand and obey the command ‘no’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 46. At twelve mon ths, babies in their gross motor development may be able to rise in a sitting position from lying down ‘can rise in a sitting position from lying down’ also they may be able to cruise along using furniture as a support ‘can cruise along using furniture as a support’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 50.Where twelve month old babies fine motor development is concerned they may be able to hold a crayon in a palmer grasp and turn several pages of a book ‘can hold a crayon in a palmer grasp and turn several pages of a book at once’ also can build a few bricks and arrange toys on the floor ‘build with a few bricks and arrange the toys on the floor’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 51.With their communication and language 12 month olds may be able to speak two to six or more recognisable words ‘speak to or more recognisable words and show that they understand many more – babbling has developed into muc h more speech – like form, with increased intonation’ also may be able to hand objects to adults when asked and use them in an appropriate way ‘hand objects to adults when asked and begin to treat objects in an appropriate way, for example, cuddle a teddy but use a hairbrush’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 52.At eighteen months children with their gross motor development may be able to walk steadily and stop safely ‘can walk steadily and stop safely, without sitting down suddenly’ also they may be able to climb onto an adult chair and sit down ‘can climb forward into an adult chair and then turn around and sit’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 58.With their fine motor development eighteen month olds may be able to point to known objects ‘can point to known objects’ also they may hold a pencil in their whole hand or between the thumb and first to fingers, called the primitive tripod grasp â₠¬Ëœcan hold a pencil in their whole hand or between the thumb and first two fingers (this is called the primitive tripod grasp) Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 59.Where their communication and language is they may use gestures alongside words ‘use gestures alongside words’ also obey simple instructions and answer questions ‘obey simple instructions such as ‘shut the door’ and respond to simple questions such as ‘where’s the pussy-cat? ’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 60.At two years children with their gross motor development may be able to run safely avoiding obstacles ‘Can run safely, avoiding obstacles and are very mobile’, also walk up and down stairs usually putting both feet on each step ‘walk up and down stairs, usually putting both feet on each step’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 66.With their fine motor development two year olds may draw circles, lines and dots using preferred hand ‘draw circles, lines and dots using their preferred hand’ also may drink from a cup and manage to scoop with a spoon at mealtimes ‘can drink from a cup with fewer spills, and manage scooping with a spoon at mealtimes’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 67.With their communication and language they may talk to themselves often ‘talk to themselves often, but may not always be understood by others’ and may use phrases as telegraphic speech for example ‘daddy-car’, might mean a number of different things, ‘use phrases as telegraphic speech (or telegraphese) – for example, ‘daddy-car’ might mean a number of different things, including ‘daddy in his car’, ‘I want to go in daddy’s car’ or ‘daddy’s car is outside’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 68.At two and a half years children with their gross motor developm ent can stand on tiptoe when shown ‘stand on tiptoe when shown’, also jump with both feet together from a low step ‘jump with both feet together from a low step’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 66. With their fine motor development they may be able to eat skilfully with a spoon and maybe a fork ‘eat skilfully with a spoon and may use a fork’, also may build a tower of seven or more cubes using preferred hand, ‘can build a tower of seven or more cubes, using their preferred hand’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 67.Where two and a half year olds communication and language is concerned they may be able to know their full name ‘know their full name’, also continually ask questions ‘continually ask questions beginning ‘what†¦? ’ or ‘who†¦.? ’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 69. When children are three years, with their gross motor developmen t they may be able to walk backwards and sideways ‘can walk backwards and sideways’ also may ride a tricycle using pedals ‘can ride a tricycle using pedals’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 76.With their fine motor development they may be able to control a pencil using their thumb and the first two fingers (dynamic tripod grasp) ‘can control a pencil using their thumb and the first two fingers (the dynamic tripod grasp), also may copy a building pattern ‘can copy a building pattern of three or more cubes, including a bridge’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 77.Communication and language, they may be able to learn to speak more than one language ‘learn to speak more than one language if they hear more than one language spoken around them as they grow’, also carry on simple conversations ‘carry on simple conversations, often missing link words such as ‘the’ and ‘is’, Chi ld Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 79.At four years of age children in their gross motor development may be able to walk along a line with good balance ‘have developed a good sense of balance and may be able to walk along a line’ also they may be able to run up and down stairs, one foot per step ‘run up and down stairs, one foot per step’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 86.With their fine motor development four year olds may be able to thread small beads on a lace ‘are able to thread small beads on a lace’, also may draw a figure that resembles a person ‘can draw on request a figure that resembles a person, showing head, legs and body’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 87. With their communication and language they may be able to repeat rhymes and songs with few mistakes ‘can repeat nursery rhymes and songs, with very few errors’.Also may state their full name and address ‘can sta te their full name and address almost correctly’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 89. At five years children in their gross motor development may be able to use a variety of play equipment ‘use a variety of play equipment, including slides, swings and climbing frames’ also may have good coordination playing ball games and dancing ‘show good co-ordination, playing ball games and dancing rhythmically to music’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 94.In their fine motor they may be able to use a knife and fork competently ‘can use a knife and fork competently, but may still need to have meat cut up for them’ Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 94. With four year olds, communication and language they may be able to talk about the past, present and future ‘talk about the past, present and future, with good sense of time’. Also enjoy jokes and riddles ‘enjoy jokes and riddles’, Child Dev elopment An Illustrated Guide, Page 96.At six years of age, in their gross motor development, children are gaining both strength and agility, they may be able to jump off apparatus with confidence ‘are gaining in both strength and agility; they can jump off apparatus at school with confidence’ also may be able to ride a two-wheeled bike, maybe without stabilisers ‘can ride a two-wheeled bike, possibly without stabilisers’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 102.With their fine motor development they may be able to write their first and last name ‘can write their last name as well as their first name’, also may write simple stories ‘may begin to write simple stories’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 103. Six year olds, in their communication and language, may be able to talk fluently with confidence ‘talk fluently and with confidence’, also are developing literacy skills ‘are steadily develo ping literacy skills (reading and writing), although the ability to read independently with confidence usually begins between 7 and 9 years of age’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 105.At seven years, in their gross motor development, children may be able to control their speed when running and avoid obstacles ‘are able to control their speed when running and can swerve to avoid collision’, also are skilful in catching and throwing a ball, using one hand only ‘are skilful in catching and throwing a ball, using one hand only’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 110.With their fine motor development they may be able to use a large needle to sew and thread ‘can use a large needle to sew and thread’, may also use colour in a naturalistic way ‘begin to use colour in a naturalistic way, for example using a band of green colour at the bottom of the page to represent grass and a band of blue across the top to represe nt sky’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 111.They may be able to, in the communication and language, understand book language ‘begin to understand book language and that stories have characters and a plot (the narrative)’, and may express and communicate their thoughts ‘like to express and communicate their thoughts – about a book they have read or a TV programme they have seen’, Child Development An Illustrated Guide, Page 112. Two theoretical perspectives relevant to physical development and language and communication development are Noam Chomsky, he was American professor of linguistics, and he developed a theory, based on the idea of language development as an innate process.He believed that humans are born with the knowledge already for language; he suggested that babies have a language acquisition device (LAD). He considered that this LAD enables children to absorb the language they hear and break it up, then work out what i t is and develop an understanding of its rules and grammatical structure. To support Chomskys theory it has been shown that children of all cultures develop language at more a less the same time. Another is Arnold Gessel (1880- 1961), he was an American paediatrician; he identified three principles of physical development.The first he stated was that ‘Development follows a definite sequence’, this means that when children are growing and progressing there is a pattern in that they need to do certain movements e. g. walk, in order to do other more challenging ones e. g. skipping. The second was that ‘Development begins with the control of head movements and proceeds downwards’, this is because babies need to be able to move their head around in order to search for food, they gain control of their head and top of the spine before other parts of their body, this is thought to be a survival mechanism.The third principle is ‘Development begins with uncontr olled gross motor movements before becoming precise and refined’, this simply means that when babies are first born they have no control over their legs and arms but control is quickly gained, first of the arms and then of the wrists. I have attached three observations as appendices; these are on a child aged 3 years 1 month. I have observed my target child’s physical development, whilst looking at her gross motor skills, I used a checklist observation. For her fine motor skills I used, written narrative and for her balance and coordination I used a photographic observation.A checklist observation is when you draw a table with the columns, ‘developmental milestones’, this is where you write the milestones from the EYFS or a book and look for their age group and write what they should be able to achieve. You may have milestones for different ages for example six months before and six months after the child’s actual age. In the next column tick Ã¢â‚¬Ë œyes’, if they did completed the milestone, if not tick ‘no’ in the column after. Then the last column says ‘comments’ which is where you put additional information about how or where the child completed or didn’t complete the milestones and if she needed assistance.The photographic observation is when you look through the EYFS at your TCs age group for the chosen subject, for e. g. ‘physical development’ and see what they should be doing, then when you see your TC doing these things while observing, take a series pictures of them in a sequence so it tells a story, then write next to the picture a little caption about what the child is doing and how/ where she is doing it. A written narrative is an observation where you write down exactly what you see, including what hand the child is using, the expressions on their face etc. it’s a running commentary of what is happening.The observer sits away from the child and does not g et involved during the observation and makes notes. The observer should write the observation up ASAP whilst they still remember the information. First of all we must ask permission from the parent before we do any type of observation, if we did not do this then the practioner and the parents trust is jeopardised immediately. This is part of the settings policies and procedures which provides consistent practise, trust and high standards and if they are not followed it could lead to different standards bad reputation and inconsistent practise.It is against the law to give out children’s details to anyone, if the child is not in danger; this is stated in the legislation, The Data Protection Act 1998, ‘To protect individuals rights from breaching of information’ all of the nursery settings are aware and follow this, if they didn’t follow this then children will be put in harm and may be taken advantage of, it will not only put the child in harm but also the child’s family as well.We can maintain confidentiality throughout the observation by using TC meaning target child in all the observations rather than their name, this will help keep the child safe as it will not give any personal information away, we can also use TA meaning target adult and OC meaning other children, this will help keep the staff and other children from risk.Also we can make sure we do not give away the settings name and just write, for example, ‘day nursery’ and all the observations are objective, meaning that you are not assuming anything e. g. how the child is feeling, this is needed so you are not labelling children, jumping to conclusions or being bias. Different observation techniques are used as it improves accuracy, e. g. you wouldn’t use a photographic to look at the language development.In photographic observations you must make sure that you take the images on the settings camera not your own and print them off in the setting n ot take them on a memory stick, if you print off more photographs than needed you must destroy them using a shredder, also when taking the images make sure you do not get any other children in the background as they may not have the permission from the parents to do so, if we did not do this then the parent would then not feel comfortable in leaving their child in that setting, also the images may get into the wrong hands and be used inappropriately meaning the child could be at risk.The only type of information that should be shared is safety: medical issues, allergies, Support learning: likes, dislikes, what stage they're up to, and Background info: if anything is happening at home that could affect child: e. g. separation or family death, information is only shared on a need to know basis. All the information should be kept in a locked filing cabinet. Also make sure that the observations are only shared with the parents of the hild and other professionals. With my three observati ons on my target child I looked at three different developmental areas, such as, gross motor, fine motor and balance and co-ordination. In the gross motor observation using quotes from the ‘EYFS’ and ‘Child Development An Illustrated Guide’, my TC is currently achieving the majority of these milestones and some of the things stated she couldn’t of accomplished in the garden, e. g. ‘using a pencil’.My TC seems to be very confident in peddling, jumping, balancing etc and kicking a ball with great control; however, she needed assistance with walking on tiptoes, this is due to possibly not having the opportunity to try it. My TC also seems very sociable as she was playing a lot with her friends whether it was by pushing them round in the car or throwing a ball to them, this is perhaps because she is with adult company a lot of the time, this checklist information therefore shows me that there are no areas to be concerned about and my TC prac tises these skills every day.When observing her balance and co-ordination, I have realised that she is very confident and in control of her balance and co-ordination, also that she is developing at the right stage for her age and is capable balancing by herself without assistance, showing that she is becoming more independent. My TC persisted with the activities even when challenges occurred which shows she is persistent and also she was finding new ways to do things which shows she is very inquisitive, this is stated in the ‘EYFS, Characteristics of effective learning’, showing she is on track and at the right place.With the fine motor observation, my TC is meeting and exceeding the developmental milestones that she should be applying with the EYFS, this observation shows me that she engages in an activity and doesn’t give up until she has accomplished it, this shows great determination. My TC is turning out to be very independent, clever and determined, all of these things show that she is developing at the right pace for her age and is currently meeting and exceeding the developmental milestones.This is possibly due to spending a lot of one to one time with mum and dad and being at nursery all day for three days; she always joins in with games and includes her friends improving vital skills such a socialising and physical development. My TC is always using her initiative when things go wrong and quickly amends them, e. g. when ‘she dropped all the beads, she quickly picked them up and rebuilt it’. My TCs needs are that she needs the equipment, space and time to develop these skills, improving her developmental areas.She needs extra help with balancing; walking on tiptoes etc. so in the short term setting out obstacle courses or beams to walk along would benefit her massively as it would require her to use her balance and concentration. ‘Blocks and block play is very important for childrens learning and development. Bec ause there is no right or wrong way to play with them, they are the perfect open-ended resource and they are so versatile that they support learning across all areas of the curriculam’.Through my observations and discussions with my mentor, I am aware that my TC really enjoys playing outside and with her friends, and she feels lost without them; this is mainly because she spends a lot of time outside with her parents, one to one, this is massively beneficial also for her health. To support her future planning I would provide more activities that includes being outside and being active and try giving her the one on one attention, when possible.The implications of observations are that observations need to be valid and reliable otherwise there will be biasness and different interpretations of how the child is feeling and the observations won’t be accurate. We can do this by objective observations, which are by looking at the child with fresh eyes, meaning we don’t jump to conclusions and make judgements and we so not have stereotypical views of the child. We can also make it reliable by writing it up ASAP so the observation is still in your head and you don’t forget or make-up key information.We must use different techniques to observe the child this is because there are many aspects to look at and you can’t look at them all from one type, e. g. looking at a child’s language, you couldn’t do this using a photographic observation, if you didn’t do this then you would miss out information that might be necessary to detect any issues. Observations are needed to reflect on for future planning, if you didn’t the child will lose interest and not progress in development.Observations are also good to give to the parent as they can see how their child is getting on and gives them reassurance as to how their child is progressing, it will hopefully highlight if there are any problems as well, which they can pas s onto other professionals. If you did not do all of these things it will let your reputation down and show you cannot be reliable to look after children in a professional manner. John Bowlby (1907-1990), stated that a Child’s emotional bond to their familiar caregiver i. e. a family member or riend is a biological response that ensured survival, he called this the ‘theory of attachment’, and he said that the quality of attachment is to blame for the child’s capacity to form trusting relationships. His theory stated that children show a preference for closeness to a small number of adults and these attachments are a normal part of human development. When babies are born they are adapted to seek out attachments not just for the aim of being fed and protected but for the feelings of safety the attachment brings.Also he said that when an infant feels safe and secure they won’t be as attached to you as when they feel scared or anxious, this is known as ‘attachment behaviour’. Also as infants mature into adulthood, the need for attachment lessens, however when we feel stress or anxiety we may find ourselves seeking comfort from loved ones. The main positive outcomes of good attachment experiences in the early years seemed to be social ones, things such as self-confidence, efficiency, self-esteem and the capacity to care for others and to be cared for.Many practioners worry about the children becoming too attached to them and fear that it may undermine relationships at home. They don’t want to give children the feeling of loss when they have to leave them and move on to school or the next stage. However, children can cope with several close attachments, so now at most nurseries children are given a key person, but practioners must maintain professional boundaries too, favouritism is not an outcome of closeness to a child so practioners must work alongside the parent. Burrhus Skinner (1904-1990), was probably one of the best known behaviourist theorists.Skinner applied ideas taken from his work with rodents to children, this approach is called operant conditioning, and he wrote most of his books about people. To him both animals and people are organisms – differing only to the degree of learning. Behaviourism is sometimes known as the learning theory, learning and development are often seen in terms of nature verses nurture. Behaviourism is at the extreme nurture end, Behaviourists generally believe that all behaviour is learned and can be shaped. The most common view is that behaviour is shaped by punishment and rewards, and that humans act to avoid punishment and to gain reward.Skinner emphasised reward. He believed that punishment was counter-productive, having the opposite of the desired effect. He broke tasks down into small steps, and with each step reinforced and rewarded as it was learned. Although skinners experiments were generally carried out on animals, his work became wid ely applied to child development and to work with parents. Skinner proposed that a child’s language is shaped by the responses given to them by carers or parents. Skinners theory would indicate that children have to go through a trial and error aspect; however children can pick up things that are not learnt through regular reinforcement.His work was put into practise by teaching methods which focus on the repletion of words and completion of rows of sums. Behaviourism is most often seen in the teaching of special needs children and behavioural management. Breaking down tasks into small steps, such as star charts, stamps, stickers, rewarding children for keeping to instructions and rules, and taking away of their luxury’s when they don’t keep to rules, praise and encouragement. This was introduced in the 1950s known as ‘programmed instruction’.

Nursing Excellence

The definition of nursing excellence can be defined in many ways. What is common amongst all of the definitions of nursing excellence is that providing the patient with high quality compassionate care seems to be the common thread. Florence Nightingale (considered by many to be the first nursing theorist) initiated the elevation of the nursing profession by educating those in charge of caring for patients and teaching them to use the environment to assist in patient recovery. From that point on, the definition of nursing excellence has been constantly evolving.Virginia Henderson, much like Nightingale, a pioneer in the nursing profession, went on to include caring for the healthy individual as an degree of nursing excellence. There are 7 qualities that have been identified as being the qualities required to excel in nursing. Those qualities are: Compassion, Ownership, Partnership, Dignity, Integrity, Knowledge, and Communication (Tomes. C, n. d. ). Nurses who exemplify all of these q ualities have proven to be leaders in their area of practice, displaying qualities that other nurses can look up to and seek professional counsel from.Nursing excellence results in competent, cost effective high quality care. The push for excellence in the nursing profession is exemplified in The National League for Nursing model for education. This model of education prepares nurses to achieve excellence by teaching nurses to â€Å"fulfill various roles- providing high quality care to individuals, families, and communities; teaching effectively; influencing public policy; and conducting research† (The National League for Nursing, 2006).This model represents the fact that the NLN believes that excellence in nursing starts before one graduate from nursing school, and before your very first patient encounter. I agree with the NLN’s approach to stress excellence in the educational arena of nursing. There has been an increased interest in nursing as a second career, possib ly after a lay-off of closing of a person’s job. The enrollment in BSN programs has increased by 3. 5 percent from 2008 to 2009 (AACN, 2009). The ability to pass nursing classes doesn’t mean that someone can become an excellent nurse; excellence must be taught and demonstrated.

In creation of annales school Essay

underwent a crisis. During the Third Republic, historians had established a strong presence within French universities by teaching political history of the French nation. After World War I, however, historians faced a challenge to their powerful position. In the late twenties and early thirties the government reduced the number of teaching posts made available to historians in secondary and higher education. Moreover, some French intellectuals questioned the value of professional history, accusing historians of contributing to the rise of jingoistic nationalism. In the context of these challenges to the status of history, some historians elected to alter the way they wrote political history. In the interests of â€Å"intellectual disarmament,† the Comite francais des sciences historiques and the Comite francais de la cooperation intellectuelle participated in an international effort to rewrite history textbooks. In 1929 the historians Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre launched a new journal Annales d’histoire economique et sociale. They did so in hope of transforming the historical discipline by providing a venue for the publication of research focused on social and economic history. Throughout much of the journal’s history, editors of Annales encouraged a style of history that rose above the accumulation of fact, that mobilized historians to tackle shared problems, and that sought to build alliances among different fields in the social sciences. Historians in Europe and the United States have seen the creation of Annales as a crucial turning point in the history of the historical profession and the French social sciences. After World War II the journal, then renamed Annales: economies, societes, civilisations, served as a rallying point for young French historians interested in exploring new approaches to writing history. Taking up the intellectual program first defined by Bloch and Febvre, Annales’s post-WWII editors advocated a style of history that borrowed problems and methods from demography, economics, and geography. This paper show how Bloch and Febvre drew on the concern about intellectual over-specialization and the trend to collectivize research in order to shape research on economic history and rural society. Although Bloch proposed numerous collaborative projects, the mainstay of the journal’s success was its attention to rural history. The political import of research on rural societies and the cultural politics of intellectual cooperation thus proved to be valuable resources in the development of Annales’s intellectual program. HISTORIOGRAPHY Over the past two decades historians have been taking stock of the journal’s legacy to history and social science. A major theme in evaluations of Annales is the journal’s interdisciplinary ambition. Some historians of history depict the alliances negotiated between history and the social sciences as problematic. For example, Georg Iggers and Lawrence Stone contend that in emulating the social sciences the New History lost sight of the ways in which human beings make history. Purporting to examine society at its most profound levels, Annales historians tended to make history not a study of change but a science of static societies. Some historians are rethinking the merits of social science history. In a collection of essays on historiography Immanuel Wallerstein, once a proponent of Annales history, proclaims that the time has come to move beyond Annales and the emphasis on interdisciplinarity. Proponents of the New Cultural History have turned away from the blending of geography, economics, demography, sociology, and history that had been the hallmark of Annales history from the fifties to the early seventies. Some of them, including the Annales historian Herman Lebovics, draw on literary theory to criticize the assumptions and categories used by many social and economic historians in their analyses. The reevaluation of history’s alliances with the social sciences is fueled partly by a reaction to the scientization of the discipline and partly by philosophers of historical writing, who have drawn attention to the rhetorical and literary aspects of history. Taking a different approach to analyzing the relationship between history and social science, Terry Clark and Francois Dosse look at the function of competition in intellectual life. Clark depicts the leadership of historians over the establishment of the Sixth Section as the result of a struggle between historians and sociologists for control of institutional resources. More polemical than Clark, Dosse overtly attacks Annales historians’ tendency to raid other social sciences in their relentless pursuit of new topics and methods. Dosse suggests that interdisciplinarity was merely a form of intellectual acquisitiveness that led historians to absorb (or attempt to absorb) other intellectual fields. The result is a patchwork history that had lost coherence as a discipline. Two sources help greatly in examination of Marc Bloch’s life and work, his influence and role in establishing the Annales School. The Susan Friedman book Marc Bloch, Sociology, and Geography: Encountering Changing Disciplines, provides excellent coverage of Bloch’s life and career: some fundamental and significant standpoints and events are described and discussed thoroughly therein. In addition, Carole Fink’s book Marc Bloch: A Life in History provides intellectual and political bibliography of Annales co-founder. THE ANNALES PROGRAM From the journal’s inception through the end of the thirties, Bloch and Febvre worked to create a collective spirit among Annales’s readers and contributors. In the letter that accompanied the first issue of the journal, they proclaimed that the young periodical was born of â€Å"in effort to rapprochement of contributors,† whose ambition was to work collaboratively â€Å"constant community. † By the end of the thirties Bloch and Febvre referred to a common identity that was shared by those who rallied to the journal. In 1939, when they terminated their relationship with Armand Colin and began to publish the journal independently, they again appealed to the collective spirit of their subscribers. The reference to the solidarity of the journal’s â€Å"disciples† was the most explicit evocation of solidarity to appear during the thirties. In addition to making an explicit appeal to teamwork and collaboration, Bloch and Febvre marketed Annales to both academic and non-academic readers. In the planning phase of the journal in 1928, they informed their publisher that they anticipated selling subscriptions to university libraries in France and abroad as well as to municipal libraries. In addition professional historians in higher education, they decided to make an appeal to history teachers in French high schools as well as local savants, whose good will and research efforts had been wasted, they felt, in the activities of provincial learned societies. In their efforts to market the journal, they distributed two prospects — one for professional historians and another for the local savant. As Febvre wrote, he and Bloch intended to add, as an expression of good will, personal notes to the copies of the prospectus destined for provincial researchers. Professional sociologists and experts on society and economics comprised the last major group of potential readers and contributors that Bloch and Febvre had in mind in 1928. With the publication of Annales starting in 1929, Bloch tried to use the journal to advance his career. Early in the early thirties, he actively campaigned for a position in Paris, and he had his eye Camille Jullian’s Chair at the College de France. In 1930, Bloch penned a flattering retrospective article on Jullian’s career, and late in 1932, he praised Jullian’s preface to Guy de Tournadre’s L’histoire du comte de Forealquier, while subjecting Tournadre to excoriating criticism. Bloch also attacked the medievalist Louis Halphen in a review of Halphen’s contribution to Cambridge University Press’s multi-volume series on medieval history. During the twenties Halphen and Bloch had entertained a rivalry. Both occupied the field of medieval history and therefore vied with each other for a position in Paris. In the midst of that rivalry each historian struggled to establish his intellectual niche and institutional foothold by defining himself in opposition to the other. Although Bloch’s efforts to join the College de France failed, he won a position at the Sorbonne in 1935. Bloch, who was Halphen’s junior by six years, received a Parisian appointment only one year after Halphen assumed his Chair at the Sorbonne in 1934. Between 1932 and 1934, Bloch and Febvre actively solicited contributions from non-academic researchers by introducing another style of inquiry — the â€Å"enquete contemporaine. † The contemporary studies were not designed to be collectively executed research projects, and Bloch and Febvre offered no specific research guidance. Instead, the journal published on-going or recent work on the economy of contemporary Europe, and most contributors wrote articles on such topics as banking and finance. By designing projects that called on the contribution of such an ilk, they hoped to rally different groups — amateur, professional, and expert — around the journal. By choosing such a variety of scholars to participate in the journal, Bloch and Febvre thus defined the intellectual mission of the journal broadly. Moreover, they deliberately left such terms as â€Å"social† and â€Å"economic† loosely defined. Bloch’s correspondence with the historian of Japan Kanichi Asakawa revealed a conscious decision to leave open the journal’s definition of social history. Bloch and Febvre adopted a similarly broad view of the journal’s intellectual mission when they opened Annales up to contributions from other social scientists. With the exception of favoring empirical research over theoretical studies, they defined no intellectual orthodoxy for the journal. In Annales, cross-disciplinarity was often little more than an ensemble of articles by different social scientists on related topics. In 1935 and 1936, for example, Bloch and Febvre published a series of essays on tools and technology, which included an article by Andre Haudricourt, an agronomist who later specialized in ethno-botany and the ethno-history of technology. In his correspondence with the historian Charles Parain, Haudricourt wrote that he was astounded by the intellectual differences between historians and ethnographers despite their common interest in tools and technology. True to Haudricourt’s observation, his article on the harness and Bloch’s article on the same subject had no meaningful similarities or differences — they simply bypassed each other. Haudricourt’s essay in Annales followed the harness’s geographical diffusion. When they defined Annales’a intellectual mission, Febvre and Bloch shared a desire to avoid intellectual orthodoxy . Their goals were twofold. They wanted to encourage historians to think about specific research problems, and they also wanted to lay the groundwork for doing empirical research on economic and social history by gathering information about archives. One of the strategies they used to accomplish those goals was the organization of collective projects. Responding to the inter-war emphasis on international cooperation, Bloch and Febvre saw collective research as a way to inspire their readers to organize their work around common problems. In the first issue of Annales Bloch and Febvre announced several structured inquiries into the history rural society, of prices, and of nobility. But in spite of their agreement on the basic research program for the journal and in spite of their confidence in the utility of collective research, they eventually developed very different conceptions of what intellectual teamwork might bring to history and social science. Febvre’s conception of teamwork and its usefulness for historians and social scientists centered on the collection of information. In contrast with Febvre’s fascination with the division of labor and the creation of a research network, Bloch showed less interest in culling data from a pool of untrained research workers. Early in his career, he had expressed an interest in using research questionnaires, although he had not thought of them as useful for establishing large-scale projects in data collection. Bloch’s earliest writings on methodology drew parallels between the use of questionnaires and the scientist’s practice of reporting on research objectives and procedures. Bloch saw questionnaires as instrumental for structuring communication among fields in the social and human sciences. For example, he advocated emulating the multi-disciplinary approach of the Oslo Institute for the Comparative Study of Culture. BLOCH’S WORK AND ROLE In the journal’s first year Bloch implemented a collective project on rural history. The project on â€Å"Les plans parcellaires† was journal’s longest and most successful team project. In his introduction, Bloch called on historians and geographers to create an inventory of archival sources on rural history. According to him, valuable data on the rural economy had been preserved in rarely consulted property registers and land plats held in local archives and libraries. The â€Å"plans parcellaires† and the property registers created by European states provided visual and textual sources on the evolution of the French countryside. Scattered in archives throughout France and Europe, they provided snapshots of rural societies at different points in history. In France, they offered a way to study rural history from seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Bloch argued that the study of the â€Å"traits matiriels† of the rural countryside would help researchers understand the basic structure of rural society as a precursor to further research. Using cadastral maps, geographers and historians could study changes in land usage, systems of crop rotation, the persistence of common land or its enclosure, settlement patterns, the distribution and size of villages, and the evolution of seigniorial authority. Because of the cadasters’ potential value to geographers and historians, Bloch used Annales to create a basic inventory of their availability. He did not, however, use his team projects to generate raw data on rural history. Bloch asked readers to submit articles on the availability of four types of sources in their local archives or libraries: land maps (terriers) created prior to the Revolution, property records generated during the Revolution, the Napoleonic cadaster, and any revisions made to it during the nineteenth century. Through Annales, Bloch built a team comprised of local savants, students, and specialists on rural society and economy from France and abroad. In 1931 the friendly society of provincial archivists adopted a proposal to establish an inventory of the Napoleonic cadaster as well as any maps that provided information on the type of crops grown in the different regions of France. The Director of French Archives endorsed the proposal in a circular distributed to archivists throughout France. As the project unfolded, Bloch not only recommended that historians analyze visual historical sources on the French countryside (i. e. , cadastral atlases and terriers), but he also advocated studying the contemporary landscape. In instructions and articles for the study of the â€Å"plans parcellaires,† he recommended using aerial photography and archaeology in order to identify the trace of past in the present configuration of the countryside. Bloch’s work on rural history has helped to define the nation myth of French diversity and rootedness in a rural past. One of the themes that emerges from Bloch’s book on French rural history, Les caracteres originaux de 1’histoire rurale francaise, was indeed the diversity of France and the deep continuities between past and present that defined French rural history. Surveying the French countryside from the hamlets of Brittany to the villages of Provence, Bloch identified dramatic contrasts in the physical, economic, and social configuration of French rural life. Examining the rural economy, he identified a variety of agrarian regimes. Open fields, enclosures, agricultural tools as well as biennial and triennial systems of crop rotation all combined and overlapped in divergent ways throughout France. In place of any form of national ethnic unity or homogeneity, he identified three distinct types of agrarian civilization. As Meillet and Demangeon had done in the late twenties, Bloch also indulged a patriotic claim that French scholars might lead their European colleagues in orchestrating research on rural civilization. Unlike Febvre, whose work with the Commission des recherches collectives eventually led him to undertake a national inventory of France’s rural civilization, Bloch remained committed to implementing projects at the international level, planning collective studies that built on his work in rural history. In a 1933 proposal published in the Bulletin of the International Committee of the Historical Sciences, he outlined a project on the transformation of seigniorial institutions throughout Europe. Bloch proposed to create a common questionnaire in order to establish a basic starting point. With France clearly in mind, he focused on studying the erosion of large seigniorial demesnes and the rise of the small landholder, who paid a form of rent usually in crops but sometimes in obligatory labor. As he had stated in Les caracteres originaux, the emergence of the small landholder was one of the defining characteristics of French rural history. Although France was his starting point for defining research projects on rural history, he intended his project to generate comparative and cross-disciplinary research on European agrarian history. Yet in his work on rural history Bloch transformed France into a microcosm of Europe. He used France to illuminate research problems that he considered pertinent to Europe as a whole, and he claimed that rural France was in fact an ideal laboratory for the study of European agricultural civilization as a whole. The diversity of France and the multiple agrarian civilizations that Bloch found there made it a universal theater of research. In 1934 Bloch repeated his call for collective research on rural civilization to an audience of French scholars. In a proposal to the College de France, written for his campaign for a chair in the comparative history of European civilization, he outlined plans for an international investigation of European rural history. He proposed to pursue research on agrarian regimes as well as on evolving notions of personal liberty and servitude. Bloch again called for the use of a unified research questionnaire in order to solicit contributions from those outside of the University’s upper echelons. The standardized questionnaires allowed for more effective coordination in the scale and scope of research, and the coordination of comparative research would establish France’s intellectual leadership in an area and research method that had thus far been neglected beyond France’s borders. Bloch argued that his project would guide experts, scholars, local savants, and students in a vast collaborative project that would cross national frontiers as well as the intellectual and social boundaries created by university hierarchies. Between 1928 and 1930, Bloch had elaborated his approach to comparative history. From the outset Bloch eschewed the modern nation-state as his research terrain. To accept modern boundaries and national divisions within the formulation of a research project was to impose anachronistic categories on historically situated societies, groups, institutions, and economies. For Bloch effective comparison required researchers to recognize the fluidity of geographical frontiers. Bloch’s approach to comparative history drew heavily on Antoine Meillet’s work in comparative and historical linguistics, which had sought to redefine the study of European civilization through international study of dialects and language families. As much as Bloch admired the tools that Meillet had brought to the history of civilizations, he also saw historical linguistics as only one tool among others. Bloch contended that the cultural frontiers identified by historical and geographic linguistics did not necessarily correspond to the frontiers that could be identified by historians or human geographers. Bloch trusted the detection of multiplicity and the complex connections among linguistic, institutional, social, economic facts that made explaining change such a difficult undertaking. Above all he feared intellectual laziness, which tempted scholars to rely on categories or abstract concepts that too easily substituted for criticism, reflection, and intellectual flexibility. In interwar Europe, ethnicity was one of the abstractions that informed research on rural civilization, and many of Bloch’s commentaries on rural civilization contained sharp criticism of it. In a 1928 article on comparative history, he had criticized the effort by Friedrich Meitzen, the German specialist of agrarian civilization, to establish an ethnic map of Europe. In a 1934 review of German research on toponymy and ancient history, Bloch criticized scholars who attempted to write the history of race and ethnicity. In 1932 Bloch returned to the rural habitat in a review of the latest round of work that had emerged from the 1931 International Conference of Geographers. In a tangent on Slavic scholarship on the rural history of Eastern Europe, Bloch objected to the intrusion of nationalism into scholarship on European settlement patterns. The bulk of his article, though, dealt with the conceptual problems of writing on the rural habitat. Bloch developed Lefevre’s earlier recommendation that such terms as habitat, village, and hamlet be more clearly defined. Between its first meeting in 1925 and its final report in 1931, the International Committee on the Rural Habitat had elected to use a numerical formula to define the terms village and hamlet: X number of houses within a given area equaled a village, whereas fewer than X made up a hamlet. Emphasizing the importance of examining social groups in addition to habitat and landscape, Bloch sought to make the analysis of rural life intellectually subtle and less vulnerable to serving nationalist agenda. To the arbitrary numerical definition of the village that was offered by geographers, Bloch added a social definition the rural village. Arguing that geographers had overlooked the social nature of the village community, he contended that family or kinship groups often define villages and hamlets. He held that historians and social scientists in fact understood very little about the history of the family. During the late thirties he began to sharpen his criticisms of what he saw as the increasingly romantic nationalist strain in research on rural civilization. At the 1937 Congres international de folklore, Bloch overtly attacked Demangeon’s work on the rural habitat. According to Bloch, Demangeon had simplified the complexity of rural society by glorifying peasant civilization. In a paper for the 1939 International Conference of Sociologists, he proposed another research project in which he gave the guidelines for a study of village communities. Bloch’s 1939 proposal was not the first time that he had dealt with the social structures of rural civilization. Even in Lea caracteres originaux, he had taken care to differentiate among the social groups working the land, discussing the emergence of the small landholder and agricultural day laborers. Bloch’s plans for a study of the village community built on his interest in extending the analysis of rural civilization to include the structures of social life in addition to his earlier projects on cadastral records and the physical features of the rural habitat. 9S Bloch’s recommendations came with what he saw as the urgent need to arrest the intrusion of nationalism into the social sciences, and he attacked any effort to use research on rural life and the peasantry to indulge romantic and ethnic definitions of the nation. That concern about the nationalist overtones of research on rural society emerged in his articles on rural history. In an article for the catalog of the 1939 exhibition on the French agronomist Olivier de Serres, Bloch redoubled his attacks on the mythologization of peasant France. In his paper he scrutinized the writings of nineteenth century French historians, pointing out their simplification of French history in using such abstractions as the Gallic or Frankish races. Bloch had clearly wearied of the ways in which discussions of European settlement patterns and rural civilization served as a blank screen for the projection of politically motivated descriptions of national unity, colonization, conquest, or invented antagonisms among races or ethnic groups. CONCLUSION Historians of Annales have often focused on the resistance among most historians to Bloch and Febvre’s efforts to reform the historical profession. Their studies have neglected the strategies that Bloch and Febvre used to recruit participants for journal and for their efforts to negotiate alliances with other fields in the social sciences. More often than not, Febvre’s and Bloch’s attempt to bring the fields of sociology, geography, linguistics, folklore, and history together around such topics as work, prices, or rural history revealed significant differences of method. Thus, the journal’s cross-disciplinary alliances yielded limited success in structuring genuinely cross-disciplinary collaboration. In order to direct historians away from the writing of political history, Bloch and Febvre adopted collective research as a strategy for rallying historians to the journal and to define research problems. For Febvre collaborative research furnished researchers who generate raw data which can then be used by expert researchers. Through his involvement with the Commission des recherches collectives, he negotiated an alliance with folklorists to organize amateur researchers for the purposes of gathering data on traditional ways of life, village communities, and peasant customs. In Bloch’s work team research functioned as a form of pedagogy through which he instructed his colleagues in the provinces and the students on techniques and sources that were critical to writing the history of rural civilization. Through Annales Bloch worked to alter the intellectual terrain of history. However, the historian remained the guardian of the nation’s symbols and heritage, just as it had been earlier in the Third Republic. Rather than focus on political history, Bloch defined France through the diversity of its rural civilization. At the end of the thirties, Bloch became increasingly cognizant of the political implications of research on rural France. In his reviews and through their leadership of research projects both Bloch helped to position the discipline of history as the critic of fields that contributed to the study of rural France. During the forties the study of rural France became increasingly politicized by the Vichy government. Works Cited Besnard, Philippe, ed. The Sociological Domain: The Durkheiminas and the Founding of French Sociology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Burke, Peter. The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-1989. Cambridge: Polity, 1990. Clark, Terry Nichols. Prophets and Patrons: The French University and the Emergence of the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973. Dosse, Francois. The New History in France: The Triumph of Annales. Translated by Peter V. Conroy. Chicago: University Illinois Press, 1994. Fink, Carole. Marc Bloch: A Life in History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Friedman, Susan W. Marc Bloch, Sociology, and Geography: Encountering Changing Disciplines. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Iggers, Georg. New Directions in European Historiography. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1975. Hunt, Lynn. â€Å"French History in the Last Twenty Years: The Rise and Fall of the Annales Paradigm,† Journal of Contemporary History 21 (1986): 209-24. Kain, Roger J. P. and Elizabeth Baigent. The Cadastral Map in the Service of the State: A History of Property Mapping. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992. Keylor, William. Academy and Community: The Foundation of the French Historical Profession. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975. Lebovics, Herman. True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992. Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976. Stone, Lawrence. The Past and the Present Revisited, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987. Weber, Eugen. The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. Wallerstein, Immanuel. Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth-Century Paradigms. New York: Polity Press, 1991. Wallerstein, Immanuel. â€Å"Annales as Resistance,† Review 1 (1978): 5-7.

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Social Learning Theory - A. Bandura - Research Paper Example There involves a wide rage of technical aspects that need to be focused and incorporated to achieve the very educational goals of the overall education system. According to Bandura, school must do more than just imparting knowledge in the same old traditional ways, which according to him do not have a thorough influence over the long-term learning of the students. Let the paper first analyze the key points that the Social Learning theory (Ormrod, 2007) revolves around and subsequently, will move towards specific aspects of educational systems that one should incorporate, in order to achieve the highest rate of development in the light of this theory. Social Learning Theory (Ormrod, 2007) primarily advocates the idea that the learning capability of people is because of their observations. When people observe some one practicing something and achieving any kind of results, they like imitating the person’s behavior after a sequence of cognitive processes. This means that imitatin g makes people learn and thus observation is the key element. Moreover, since behaviorist theory and other learning theories like cognitive learning theory also emphasize upon people’s learning due to their abilities of memorizing and retention; social learning theory can play a vital role as a bridge between these theories since this element is mutually found in the mentioned three theories. In addition, the factor of motivation has to be present to make the individual move forward in adopting a behavior and evolving his personality (Learning-Theories, 2008). Furthermore, there are three significant variables, Bandura has put his theory upon and integrated them with proper reasoning. As discussed earlier, firstly behavior is the key element of learning (Ormrod, 2007). The second most important feature is personal variable. The preferences of an individual play a significant part in making them distinguish between what they want to learn and what they should and what they do not want to learn and they should not. Every individual has their own area of interest with a set boundary of ethical values and mores. Imitation and observations are greatly influenced by the values that the individuals hold previously. Third important variable is the environmental events that take place. This incorporates the answers to questions like what kind of an event is taking place, how frequently and how much the recipient is involved. Thus, according to Bandura, all these factors have a collective effect over the personality development of the individuals (Frick, 1991). Educators play a significant role in making the students realize that all of them can learn anything at any point in time and in any stage of their lives. Since, every individual possesses different qualities and even each one of them has their particular bent of mind to learn according to their own capacities, the focus should be on the factor of motivation. Thus, educators should primarily try to bring a bout the motivation factor in their students at first because if motivation were not present, individual learning process would hinder a lot (Books, 2010). Secondly, educators must try knowing about the specific learning trends of every student. This connotes that some students are visual learners, some are auditory learners, and some learn through simulations and not by any other means. Once, the educators have a grip on these aspects, they can move on while focusing over